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dolphins favored habitats clearly have the potential tocause significant damage to these species at the populationlevel, as they have to cetaceans worldwide (Northridge andHofman 1999). As pointed by Martin et al. ( 2004),Amazonian dolphins selectively occur in areas known to be favored for gill net deployment by local fishermen, andthis may explain why entanglement is apparently a commoncause of mortality. Additionally, some are deliberatelyhunted for their meat and oil, which are used as fish bait and as an emulsion to protect boats from water. They arealso occasionally hunted for their body parts, which areused in traditional medicine.

S. fluviatilis is listed in Appendix I of the Convention onInternational Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and inAppendix II of the Convention on Migratory species(CMS), while Sotalia is considered as insufficientlyknown by the IUCN (IUCN 2007). In Brazil, it is protected under the Federal Law, which prohibits huntingof any wildlife found in its territory for sale nationally or internationally (Article 1 Law 5,197 January 3, 1967 andArticle 29 of Law 9,605 February 12, 1998). Despite lawsand treaties, use and trade of the species for medicinal andmagic/religious purposes persist in the country.

In Brazil, mainly in north, there is a market for the eyes,teeth, and genital organs of the dolphins, which are used asmagical charms. The fat and oil of the skin also are usedcommercially and in traditional medicine (Alves et al .2007 ). Despite intensive use and commercialization, thereis a general lack of information, which renders difficult evaluation of the magnitude and impact of the harvestingand trade on the natural populations.

As part of broader study of medicinal and magic/ religious fauna in Brazil, this note reports aspects of theuse and commercialization of S. fluviatilis for medicinaland magic/religious purposes in Northern Brazil. The studywas conducted in the City of Belm and in the fishingcommunity of Pesqueiro Beach, both located in the state of Par. Human communities in the surveyed areas represent both African and native populations.

Methods

Our study was carried from September to November 2005in Belm and Pesqueiro Beach, in Par State, Brazil. Belmis the capital and the largest city in Par (0127 21 S and4830 16 W). Its population exceeds 1.3 million, making it the tenth largest city in Brazil. Its metropolitan area hasapproximately 2.01 million inhabitants. Belm hashundreds of outdoor markets and shops selling agriculturalcommodities, fish, and a wide range of Amazonian floraand fauna. One of the regions most famous outdoor markets is the Ver-O-Peso in the City of Belm, where

fruit, fish, meat, herbs, medicinal products, and handicraftsare sold (Shanley 2003).

Pesqueiro Beach is located in the Municipality of Soure,on the eastern side of the Maraj Island, which is the largest fluvial island in the world. Soure encompasses an area of 3,528.7 km 2 with a population of 19,195 inhabitants. Cattleranching is Soure s main economic activity, followed by sub-sistence fisheries and agriculture (Alves and Santana 2008).

Information on the use and commercialization of S. fluviatilis for medicinal and magic/religious purposes wasobtained through semistructured interviews, complemented by unstructured interviews (Huntington 2000), which wereconducted on a one-to-one basis. In the City of Belm,information was collected through interviews with 38merchants (19 men and 19 women). Of these, 15 wereowners of religious articles stores, and 23 sold herbs or roots for medicinal purposes in open markets. In PesqueiroBeach , interviews were conducted with 41 inhabitants (23men and 18 women). Knowledge about medicinal animalsis widespread in fishing communities, chiefly amongst theelderly (Alves and Rosa 2006, 2007a ). Information on themedicinal use of products of S. fluviatilis in traditionalmedicines was collected mainly from the elderly popula-tions, who still retain the major portion of traditionalknowledge in their communities. Species identification wasdone through photographs taken during interviews, andwith the aid of taxonomists familiar with the study areasand with local vernacular names.

Results and Discussion

In Belm, interviewees ( n =30) stated that they obtainspecimens or parts of S. fluviatilis through sellers that periodically bring these products to them, or directly fromfishers that come from rural areas and accidentally captureddolphins. Besides S. fluviatilis , 14 merchants interviewed inthe city of Belm mentioned products derived from theAmazon River dolphin ( Inia geofreensis ) which are tradedfor same purposes as S. fluviatilis. All interviewees at Belm and Pesqueiro Beach reported that dolphins areharpooned, or killed by blows to their heads whileentangled in nets. Incidental captures seem to be common,as well as mortality due to collisions with boat engines.Information on prices and volumes traded is summarized inTable 1.

Of the 41 interviewees at Pesqueiro Beach, 36 (89%)reported the use fat and oil of the skin, generally as anointment rubbed on a wound or sore place, or swallowed,depending on the illness to be treated. According to theinterviewees in Belm city ( n =15), the fat of S. fluviatilis isused for treating four diseases: haemorrhoids, rheumatism,arthrosis and arthritis, being administered in a similar way

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to that described at Pesqueiro Beach. Dolphins teeth werealso reportedly used in a concoction for treating asthma,after being sun-dried, grated and crushed to powder.

At Pesqueiro Beach ( n =36 interviewees), oil and fat of the tucuxi dolphin were prescribed for the treatment of 12diseases (asthma, rheumatism, injuries caused by the spinesof the arraia (stingray) or other fish species, haemorrhoids,inflammation, wounds, earache, erysipelas (an acute strepto-coccus bacterial infection of the dermis, resulting ininflammation and characteristically extending into underly-ing fat tissue), athlete s foot, arthritis (a group of conditionswhere there is damage to the joints of the body), cancer andswelling), while at Belm ( n=30 interviewees) the oil and fat were used for the treatment of three illnesses (haemorrhoids,rheumatism and arthritis). The much higher number of conditions quoted at Pesqueiro Beach suggests a broader knowledge base, focused on the well-being of locals rather than on trade.

In relation to magic/religious uses, on the other hand,interviewees at Belem ( n =15) provided information onaspects such as forms of use, while at Pesqueiro Beach the36 interviewees, despite recognizing the mythic nature of the dolphin, did not provide detailed information on magic/ religious uses a reflection of links between some tradersand users with Afro-Brazilian religions at Belm. In fact,two of the interviewees were pais-de-santo and one was ame-de-santo , respectively, Afro-Brazilian priests and priestesses of the Yoruba religion known as Candombl,which according to Voeks (1997), take the role of herbalist,folk healer, diviner and shaman, as well as that of magicianand sorcerer in Brazil.

Alves and Rosa (2006, 2007a) documented the use of the fat of S. fluviatilis and S. guianensis for therapeutic purposes in the states of Piau, Paraba and Maranho, andthese results suggest a geographic continuum in the use of dolphins as medicine in fishing communities located incoastal of Brazil, which needs to be further examined in thecontext of their conservation and management.

Beyond their utilization as medicines, parts of S. fluviatilis are traded for their purported magical/religiousattributes, being popular mainly among adepts of the Afro-Brazilian religions. Dolphins products traded are: eyes,teeth, brain, embryo, penis and vagina. Additionally, these parts are also used in the preparation of purifying baths

which are indicated for attracting sexual partners. For the baths, interviewees stated that the water of thedolphin is prepared using parts of S. fluviatilis (vagina or penis, according to gender of user) immersed in alcohol or patchouly oil ( Pogostemon sp.). The water also can be produced using parts of dolphin (penis or vagina) and other animal species. In one shop in the city of Belm, adolphin s embryo and the crab Ucides cordatus were usedas ingredients for making the water . The extracts aresubsequently mixed with water during baths, or applied as a perfume. According to interviewees ( n =15), this procedurewill ensure that the user is successful in love-relatedmatters. Another product indicated to assure the user success in love is the perfume do boto (dolphin s perfume), also called asseio do (a) boto (a) , which is produced using a penis or vagina of S. fluviatilis . This product is either used as a perfume or rubbed on the genitalorgan prior to intercourse, observing gender distinction:women should use the product made with the sexual organof a female dolphin, while men should use the infusioncontaining the sexual organ of a male dolphin.

Our results are in line with some previous studies whichhave demonstrated that the dolphin s sexual organs are believed to have special powers. Women grate a dolphin penis, mix it with talcum powder, and apply it to their vaginato increase the pleasure they can give a man. A dolphin'svagina that is grated and applied to a man's penis is believedto have the same effect (Cravalho 1999). Dolphin parts, suchas eyeballs, genitalia and oil, are increasingly being sold asaphrodisiacs or medicines throughout their range. This isespecially true in areas with a large influx of new settlers(Smith 1996; Alves and Rosa 2007b).

Table 1 Parts and products derived of Sotalia fluviatilis commercialized in Belm City, state of Para

Parts or products Magic religious use Amount paid tosupplier (US$)

Sale price (US$) Volume traded(monthly)

Vagina Attract sexual partners,make money

US$ 2.3 to 9.0/wholeorgan

US$ 0.9 to 1.4 (a piece),US$ 6.8 to 22.8 (whole organ)

3 to 4 units

Penis Attract sexual partners,make money

US$ 1.4 to 4.5/wholeorgan

US$ 0.9 to 1.4 (a piece),US$ 18 to 27.2 (whole organ)

1 to 4 units

Eye Amulets, attract sexual partners,make money, improve business,and to bring good luck

US$ 0.5 to 2.3/unit US$ 3.6 to 13.6/unit 10 to 50 units

Asseio (dolphin's perfume)

Attract sexual partners Produced using a penis or vagina

US$ 1.2 to 2.3 (10 ml) 20 to 300 bott les

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Another very popular product derived from Sotalia is the patu , a kind of amulet that is hung around the neck glued on a piece of cloth, or kept in one s pocket or wallet. Patus are square or rounded objects, usually made of leather or some plastic material, containing animal parts(such as pieces of snake skin or a dolphin eye). Parts of thedolphins that are used in the patu are: eyes, or pieces of the penis or vagina. Patus can be produced using one or more animal parts derived from one or more species of animal. For example, the same patu can contain adolphin eye and a dried seahorse ( Hippocampus spp.).According to the shop owners ( n =15) where they are sold,these amulets are very popular among customers seekinggood luck, love, or financial success.

The use of body parts of dolphins for their magical power is clearly of some antiquity (Agassiz and Agassiz1868 ; Cascudo 1972). A nineteenth-century source men-tions that in spite of the respect they have for him assorcerer (who at will changes from dolphin to human andfrom human to dolphin), still they kill him, to take out theeyes, the teeth, and the penis, things to all of which theyattribute extraordinary virtues (Cascudo 1972). Beliefsabout dolphins apparently derive from African, European,and indigenous cultures (Slater 1994), and Brazilian storiesof humans encountering enchanted dolphins have been toldfor decades (Cravalho 1999).

Given the volumes traded, and the fact that we did not carry analyses of the material traded in the two surveyedlocalities, we cannot fully discount the possibility that dolphin eyes were being replaced with other more readilyavailable products. Nevertheless, Soto and Lessa ( 2005 ),examined a pair of eyes and one penis sold at the Ver-O-Peso market, and concluded they indeed belonged to asmall species of dolphin, probably S . fluviatilis .

The demand for dolphin products in local markets mayimpact S. fluviatilis populations. However the magnitudeof this impact needs to be further investigated and better understood. The combination of direct catch, incidentalcatch in trawl nets (bycatch), and habitat destruction has placed dolphin populations at risk. The demand for dolphin products for use in traditional medicine and for magic/ religious is an additional pressure and should be consideredin conservation and management strategies for thosespecies. River dolphins are flagship species for their habitats charismatic representatives of the biodiversitywithin the complex ecosystems they inhabit (Karczmarski2000 ; Walpole and Leader-Williams 2002; WWF 2006).Efforts to safeguard these cetaceans will not only help savemany other species, but will directly contribute to humandevelopment and survival by ensuring the availability of adequate and clean freshwater (WWF 2006).

Zootherapy is intertwined with sociocultural andreligious beliefs that must be understood by those

engaged in modern conservation and protection of Brazil s biodiversity; effective ways to include socioeco-nomic information and expertise in conservation areneeded. From a biological perspective, there is a needto increase our understanding of the biology and ecologyof species commonly used as remedies to better assessthe impacts of harvesting them (for medicinal or other purposes) on their wild populations. Medicinal specieswhose conservation status is in question should receiveurgent attention, and aspects such as habitat loss andalteration should be discussed in connection with present and future medicinal uses (Alves and Pereira-Filho 2007;Alves et al. 2007). As Anyinam ( 1995 ) remarked,environmental degradation affects users of traditionalmedicine both by limiting their access to the resourcestraditionally used, and by diminishing the knowledge base in their community upon which traditional medicineis constructed.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that the use of the products or parts of S. fluviatilis is widespread in Northern Brazil, both in urbanand rural areas, reflecting the cultural importance of thespecies in the region. Conservation and management plansare urgently required, but these will have to recognize thecultural aspects of human communities that use dolphinsfor food, medicines or for magic/religious purposes.Understanding the socioeconomic aspects of use and tradeof dolphins is also important for the development of anysuccessful management plan. Given that this is the first report on this subject, further investigations of this topicmay bring important additional information for the conser-vation of the species.

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